HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY
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DALLAS CHRISTIAN COLLEGE
ONLINE QUEST COURSE

SUPPLEMENTARY LECTURES 

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Jon Nelson Bailey, Ph.D.
LECTURE 3.1:  MONASTICISM IN ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL CHRISTIANITY

	I.	Origins of Christian Monasticism.
		A.	Monasticism denotes the ascetic lifestyle of monks. In Christianity, a monk is one who lives under vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. Monks devote themselves to prayer and work. The underlying motivation for monasticism has usually been the desire to achieve spiritual perfection in separation from the world.
		B.	The Christian practice of monasticism had both Jewish and Pagan antecedents. Among the Jews, the Therapeutae and Essenes had withdrawn from the world to seek a more holy life.  Among the Greeks, the wandering Cynic philosophers had renounced the world, reduced their needs to a minimum, and wore a long hooded cloak like the "habit" of later Christian monks. In general, asceticism was highly regarded in the Mediterranean world, and celibacy, vegetarianism and self-denial were marks of piety. 
		C.	The greatest influence in the origin of Christian monasticism was a literal interpretation of teachings of Jesus: "You, therefore, must be perfect, as your heavenly Father is perfect" (Matt 5:48); "There are eunuchs who have made themselves eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom of heaven" (Matt 19:12); "If you would be perfect, go, sell what you possess and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven" (Matt 19:21); "In the resurrection they neither marry nor are given in marriage, but are like angels in heaven" (Matt 22:30); "If any man would come after me, let him deny himself and take up his cross daily and follow me" (Luke 9:23); and "Whoever of you does not renounce all that he has cannot be my disciple" (Luke 14:33). This was also the case with the teachings of Paul: "But put on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make no provision for the flesh, to gratify its desires" (Rom 13:14); "Those who marry will have worldly troubles… let those who have wives live as though they had none" (1 Cor 7:29). From the 2nd century onward, many Christians devoted themselves to an ascetic life of prayer, fasting, and contemplation in response to such teachings.
		D.	The factors contributing to Christian monasticism increased in the 3rd and 4th centuries. In the late 3rd century and early 4th century, the persecution of Christians by the empire and growing secularization of the church caused many to seek separation from the world. After Constantine, persecution ceased, but many Christians were worldly and lacked commitment. The end of martyrdom left asceticism as the only form of extreme dedication for Christians, and monks replaced martyrs as the heroes of the church. Also, as public worship grew more formal and church organization more restrictive, monastic life provided intense, intimate, personal approach to God.

	II.	Important Leaders in Early Monasticism.
		A.	Paul (228-341).
			One of the first monks to live the solitary life in the desert was Paul. Although much of the information concerning him is legendary, he was remembered as a pioneer of the monastic life of the "Desert Fathers." Paul was the son of wealthy Christian parents in Egypt. At the age of fifteen, after his parents had died, Paul fled to escape persecution. When his hiding place was revealed to the authorities, he fled into a mountainous region of the Egyptian desert. He found a place of refuge in a cave that led to a small courtyard open to the sky and watered by a spring. Here he spent the remainder of his life in prayer and solitude, obtaining food and clothing from palm trees. After almost one hundred years of isolation, he allowed only one other elderly monk to enter his habitation—the monk was Anthony.
		B.	Anthony (251-356).
			The most influential early monk or "Desert Father" was Anthony, a native of Koma, Egypt. Shortly before he was twenty years old, Anthony's wealthy Christian parents died and left him productive farmland along with a considerable amount of money and possessions. Six months later, Anthony was in a worship service of the church when he heard the words of Jesus: "If you would be perfect, go, sell what you possess and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven" (Matt 19:21). He quickly sold his family inheritance and gave the proceeds to the poor, saving only a small portion to care for his younger sister. Then, not long afterwards, he heard the saying of Jesus: "Do not be anxious about tomorrow" (Matt 6:34). This caused him to give away all of the rest of his possessions and place his sister in the care of the virgins of the church. He then began an ascetic life not far from his hometown (270). Here he worked with his hands to provide enough to eat and to be able to give to the poor. Believing that he constantly struggled with demons, he practiced extreme self-denial and prayed at all times. His diet consisted of bread, salt, and water, and he ate only once each day after sunset. On many occasions he would eat only once every two, three, or even four days.  In order to live in more seclusion and discipline himself more thoroughly, Anthony moved farther from the village and settled among tombs in a cemetery. He soon moved to a remote mountain in the desert and lived as a hermit in an abandoned fort (285). After twenty years of solitude, Anthony became famous for his holiness as one reported to have healed the sick, cast out demons, consoled the sorrowful, reconciled enemies, opposed heresy, encouraged all to faithfulness, and motivated many to adopt a monastic life.  He is remembered for teaching that the sufferings of this life are small in comparison to the glory of heaven. Christians who sought spiritual perfection settled in the desert near him, trying to imitate him as a "servant of Christ." Anthony strongly supported Athanasius and in turn, his biography, The Life of Anthony, written by Athanasius, promoted monasticism.
		C.	Pachomius (290-346).
			The first monk to organize communities was Pachomius, from southern Egypt. Pachomius was a soldier for a time before being converted to Christianity. He lived alone as a hermit for a while, then founded the first Christian monastic community at Tabennisi (320). He tried to establish a community patterned after the koinonia of the early Jerusalem church. This type of monasticism is called cenobitism, and the monks are called cenobites because of their "common life" (koinos bios). The life they were to live is set forth in Rule. Practicing strict asceticism, these monks lived close together with prescribed periods of worship and work. Other monastic communities were founded in the area, and by the time Pachomius died, he was supervising nine monasteries for men and two convents for women.
		C.	Basil of Caesarea (329-379).
			He was a native of Caesarea in Cappadocia, and one of the Cappadocian Fathers. After studying at Athens, Basil returned home to Caesarea (356), where he would later become bishop (370). But he also visited monastic communities in Egypt and Syria. He developed the system of Pachomius, and wrote his own Rule giving directions for monks who lived in monastic communities. Basil's Rule was more suitable for community life. It stressed work, prayer, Bible study and doing good toward people outside of the community. It discouraged extreme asceticism and instructed monks to be subject to bishops. Basil's Rule has served as the basis of monasticism in the East until the present.
		D.	Martin of Tours (335-400).
			Martin was originally from Pannonia, a region in what is now Hungary. He was the son of a pagan soldier, and he himself was a soldier. Once before becoming Christian, when he met a beggar who was almost naked and shivering, Martin took off his cape, cut it in two, and gave half to the beggar. Later Martin had a dream in which Jesus said, "Inasmuch as you did it to one of the least of these my brethren, you did it to me." Martin was baptized and not long afterward he left the army and eventually settled in Gaul. He founded the first monastery in Gaul at Ligugé (360), became bishop of Tours (372), and promoted missions by monks in Europe. He himself participated in mission work in Normandy, and his influence extended as far as Britain. Although many believed God performed mighty works through him, Martin considered himself to be only an apprentice in the Christian faith.
		E.	Jerome (345-420).
			Originally from Italy, Jerome traveled to Gaul and became acquainted with monasticism. He returned to Italy to join a group of ascetics, then moved to Syria to live as a hermit (374-379). After spending time at Antioch and Constantinople, he went back to Italy and as secretary to pope Damasus (383-385). He returned to Palestine and settled in Bethlehem as head of a monastery for men and as the spiritual advisor of a convent for women (386). Throughout his life he promoted and popularized monasticism in the West by publishing stories of monks. He is most famous for his translation of the Bible known as the Latin Vulgate.
		F.	Benedict of Nursia (480-543).
			From Nursia, Italy, Benedict is called the "Father of Western Monasticism." As a young man he went to Rome to study, but was so shocked by the evils of the city that he became a hermit in a cave near Subiaco (500). He became famous for his ascetic lifestyle and was offered the position as head of a neighboring monastery. However, when he discovered that the monks were without organization and unwilling to submit to discipline, he returned to his cave at Subiaco. Eventually, he moved to Monte Cassino where he founded a monastery (529). At Monte Cassino, drawing on writings of Basil, John Cassian, Augustine, Caesarius of Arles, and others, Benedict produced his Rule (540).  This Rule was a comprehensive guide for the monastic life, emphasizing obedience and humility. According to the Rule, the monastery was to be a permanent, self-supporting community of monks led by an abbot. Monks were admitted only after a period of trial, followed by vows that could not be broken. Daily life was devoted to at least four hours of worship each day, plus private prayers and reading. In addition, there was an emphasis on work, especially manual labor. Monks who followed the Rule of Benedict came to be known as Benedictines, and made up the Benedictine Order—the dominant form of monasticism in the Medieval Period.

	III.	Characteristics and Achievements of Early Monasticism.
		A.	Monks exemplified the ideal of popular piety. Due to their large numbers and the esteem in which they were held, monks exerted strong influence on church and state in the East. In the West, the best thinkers and leaders not only supported monasticism, but usually were monks themselves. Everywhere people sought their advice on spiritual matters. A body of literature grew up about the monks, describing them as "saints" who performed miracles.
		B.	The development of monasticism raised the question of whether the church was to be a small group separated from the world, or a large force in control of the world. Monks felt that the world belongs to the devil and must be avoided. The established church viewed the world as the kingdom of God, and sought to bring about its subjection. Both perspectives found a place in the Catholic Church, but it was a long time before monks were firmly controlled by the church. There arose a double standard: most of the commands of the Bible were for all Christians, but instructions concerning perfection and holiness were only for monks.
		C.	Above all, monks sought spiritual perfection through contemplation of, and love for, God. This was to be achieved by renouncing the world and by imitating the example of Jesus. The monks' way of life was especially determined by vows of poverty, celibacy and obedience. Jesus had lived without worldly possessions, and so monks lived with as little as possible to free themselves from material concerns. Jesus had lived a single life, and so monks lived celibate to eliminate family cares and to abstain from sex, which they associated with sin. Jesus had lived a life of perfect obedience to his Father, and so monks lived in obedience to the word of God and their monastic superiors in order to foster submission to God.

LECTURE 3.2:  BARBARIAN INVASIONS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

	I.	Barbarian Invasions.
		A.	Background.
			In the early third century, the Alans moved from central Asia into the area east of the upper Rhine. In the mid third century, the Goths migrated to an area east of the lower Rhine and north of the Danube. In the late third century, the Franks settled east of the upper Rhine.  Starting in the early fourth century, many barbarians accepted Christianity, although most became Arians due to the missionary work of Ulfilas. In the late fourth century, the advance of the Huns out of central Asia initiated migrations by Germanic tribes throughout western Europe. At this same time, the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes invaded and took control of Britain, forcing the Picts to Scotland, the Celts to Ireland, and the Britons to Gaul.
		B.	The Vandals.
			Along with the Alans from central Asia, and the Germanic Suebi, the Germanic tribe known as the Vandals crossed the Rhine in the early fifth century (406). The Vandals swept through Gaul and Spain. They crossed into north Africa (429), took Carthage and made it their capital (439), then invaded Italy and plundered Rome (455). Under their king Huneric, the Vandals persecuted Catholics. The Vandals were defeated by the emperor Justinian (534).
		C.	The Visigoths.
			The western Goths, known as the Visigoths, attempted to cross the Danube in the late fourth century (376-378). Under their king Alaric I, they pressed almost to Constantinople (398), moved through Greece (400), passed into Italy (401), and sacked the city of Rome (410). Pressured by other tribes, the Visigoths moved west, pushing the Vandals from southern Gaul and Spain. They were forced out of Gaul by the Franks and established a kingdom in Spain with their capital at Toledo. Some of their kings treated Catholics with cruelty. They lost much of Spain to the emperor Justinian (534). Their king Recared accepted Catholic Christianity (587) and called the Council of Toledo which endorsed the Nicene Creed (589).
		D.	The Ostrogoths.
			The eastern Goths, known as the Ostrogoths, were allies of the empire in the fourth century, fighting against Asian tribes that pressed westward. Together with forces from the Visigoths and Franks, the Ostrogoths helped the Romans defeat Attila and the Huns (451). Italy was ruled by Visigoths and protected by an army from the small Germanic tribes known as the Rugii and Heruli. The last Roman emperor in the West, Romulus Augustus, was deposed by Odoacer (476). Under Theodoric, the Ostrogoths overthrew Odoacer and set up a kingdom in Italy with a capital at Ravenna (493). Theodoric was tolerant toward Catholics and promoted culture and learning. The Ostrogoths were defeated by the emperor Justinian (553).
		E.	The Franks.
			The Germanic tribe known as the Franks had been entering Gaul since the early fifth century. The Franks were pagans, but their king Clovis married a Burgundian princess, Clothilda (493). Clothilda was a Catholic, and after a victory over the Alans, Clovis and 3000 of his soldiers were baptized (496). Under Clovis the Franks drove the Visigoths into Spain, overran land held by the Burgundians, and took control of Gaul (507). Clovis made Paris his capital (508) and called the Council of Orleans where he dedicated his work to God (511). The Franks survived and provided assistance to bishops of Rome.
		F.	The Lombards.
			After the Ostrogoths were defeated in Italy by the emperor Justinian, the Lombards entered the power vacuum that was left (568). They took control of most of northern and central Italy.  Some of the Lombards were pagans and some were Arians. They were a constant threat to Rome until finally defeated by Charlemagne, the king of the Franks (774).

LECTURE 3.3:  DEVELOPMENTS IN CHURCH ORGANIZATION AND GROWTH OF THE PAPACY

	I. Developments in Church Organization
		A.	In the first century, the earliest church was under the leadership of the apostles. Later, the apostles were joined by prophets, evangelists, pastors, and teachers. Before long, there were elders in each congregation. The term elder or presbyter denoted an individual of maturity. An elder was also called an overseer or bishop referring to him as a supervisor of the church. These leaders were accompanied by deacons. The term deacon denotes a minister or servant.
		B.	In the post-apostolic period there was a continuation of the previous organization, but with changes. Following the death of the apostles, leadership passed to the elders, also known as bishops.  There was also a ministry of prophets and teachers.  See:  The Didache; 1 Clement.
		C.	By the middle of the second century, it was common for a presiding elder in each church to be identified as the bishop. This resulted from selecting one qualified individual to officiate at communion, supervise distribution of funds, represent the church and preach. This resulted in the common practice of having a single or monarchial bishop in each church. See: Ignatius.
		D.	By the end of the second century, it was often argued that the apostles had appointed bishops in the true church, delivering their doctrine and the Holy Spirit. This “apostolic succession” was believed to exist in churches founded by the apostles where there was an unbroken succession of bishops passing on true doctrine and the Holy Spirit. See: Irenaeus; Tertullian.
		E.	By the middle of the third century, the organization of the church was based on ordination by a bishop in a line of succession from the apostles. A bishop was chosen by the congregation, but ordained by other bishops with laying on of their hands. A presbyter was chosen and ordained by the bishop with laying on of hands by the bishop and the other presbyters. A deacon was chosen and ordained by the bishop with laying on of his hands. Other officers such as reader or exorcist were appointed by the bishop, but without the laying on of hands. In Rome in 251, the bishop supervized forty-six presbyters, seven deacons, seven subdeacons and ninety-four other ministers. See: Apostolic Tradition, Didascalia Apostolorum.
		F.	By the late third century, the ordained clergy consisted of bishops, presbyters, and deacons. This clergy was separate from the laity which consisted of the rest of the people. Bishops and presbyters were seen as priests performing a sacrificial ministry. This was especially the case in communion where they were seen as priests offering a sacrifice upon an altar.  They were also expected to live celibate. See: Cyprian.
		G.	From the third to the sixth centuries there was a differentiation in rank of bishops. A bishop in a small town was the lowest rank. These bishops, called chorepiscopoi in the East, were replaced in the late fourth century by presbyters in parishes under nearby bishops. Bishops in small cities supervised church activities in their area. Metropolitans, called archbishops at a later time, were bishops in the principal cities of each Roman province. Each metropolitan had authority over other bishops in his province. Archmetropolitans, called archbishops in the fourth century, then called patriarchs from the sixth century on, were the bishops in the greatest cities of the Roman empire. In 325 at Nicaea, it was decided these cities were Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and Caesarea. In 381 at Constantinople, these cities included Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, and Antioch. In 451 at Chalcedon, Jerusalem was added. From the fourth century, Rome was recognized as preeminent. Reasons for this preeminence of the church at Rome included: location in the capital of the empire; origin in the apostolic age;  association with the ministry and martyrdom of Paul and Peter; reputation for benevolence and doctrinal orthodoxy; immense size; and the leadership ability of many of its bishops.
		H.	Development toward a Roman bishop with genuine papal power occurred in the fifth and sixth centuries. Pope Innocent I (402-417) claimed universal jurisdiction over the church. Pope Leo I (440-461) emphasized the primacy of Peter among the apostles and claimed Petrine authority as bishop of Rome. Pope Gregory I (590-604), also called Gregory the Great, secured papal authority in doctrinal, ecclesiastical and political affairs.

	II.	Growth of the Papacy.
		A.	By the late 3rd century, the bishop of Rome was recognized as an archmetropolitan, having authority over all metropolitans and bishops in the West.  The term archmetropolitan was replaced by archbishop in the 4th century, and patriarch in the 6th century.  In addition to the title, the bishop of Rome had considerable power over Christians throughout the West.
		B.	Development toward universal authority of the bishop of Rome continued after Constantine moved the capital of the empire to the Constantinople. The bishop of Rome, as the highest ranking Christian leader in the West, gained authority unsurpassed by any other bishop. The term "pope," which originally had been used for a bishop of any church, came to be used only for the bishop of Rome. This power of the Roman bishop was strengthened by the belief that as pope he was the direct successor of the apostle Peter.  
			1.	Pope Innocent I (402-417) claimed universal jurisdiction over all Christianity.  
			2.	Pope Leo I (440-461) argued that Rome was the seat of Peter, the prince of the apostles, and that the bishop of Rome was the successor of Peter and his apostolic authority.  
			3.	Pope Felix III (483-492) excommunicated Zeno the emperor and Acacius the patriarch of Constantinople, causing the first break between Eastern and Western Christianity.  
			4.	Pope Gelasius (492-496) told emperor Anastasius the world is ruled by “two swords” – the spiritual sword which is the authority of the pope, and the worldly sword which is the authority of the emperor, but the authority of the pope is greater.
			5.	Pope Gregory I (590-604), also known as Gregory the Great, was the first leader of the Roman church in whom ecclesiastical and political power was consolidated, preparing the way for the Medieval Papacy.  By the late 6th century, the Byzantine empire had lost control in the West.  In addition to leading the church, the popes had to restore law and order, repair water and sanitary facilities, provide relief for the poor and refugees, carry on diplomatic relations and arrange for military defense.  Gregory did also provided strong spiritual leadership in matters of doctrine, missions, monasticism, and worship.  Christians in the West now looked to the Pope for supreme leadership.

LECTURE 3.4:  JUSTINIAN THE GREAT

	I.	Background.
		Justinian was thirty-six years old when he became joint ruler with Justin I. He was Justin's understudy for nine years before becoming emperor at the age of forty-five (527). As emperor Justinian I, he was known as Justinian the Great. When he began to rule, the West had been lost to barbarian tribes, the East was divided between Orthodox and Monophysite Christians, and fellowship between Constantinople and Rome had been only recently restored after the Acacian Schism (484-519). His goal was the complete restoration of the Roman Empire and the Catholic Church. Assisted by his wife, Theodora,  able generals and advisors, Justinian ruled over both the empire and the church for thirty-eight years until his death at eighty-three (565).

	II.	Military conquests.
		Justinian sought to regain lands that had been lost to barbarians, most of whom were Arians. Justinian's general Belisarius defeated the Vandals in northern Africa (533-534), but the native Berbers continued to resist the empire until they were subdued by general John Troglita (548). Belisarius began a military campaign against the Ostrogoths in Italy (535), but it was only after Italy had been totally devastated that victory was reached by another general, Narses (552). Justinian's armies also attacked the Visigoths in Spain (550), but managed to regain only the southeast part of the peninsula (555). These conquests were noble efforts, but they left the empire bankrupt with weakened defenses on its eastern frontiers. As a result, Slavs crossed the Danube and settled in the Balkans, and Persians captured Armenia and Syria and forced the empire to pay heavy tribute.

	III.	Building programs.
		Justinian spent lavish sums on public buildings, monuments, parks, roads, and churches. His greatest achievement was the Church of Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom) in Constantinople. Ten thousand workers labored on it for five years under the direction of the finest architects in the world (532-537). Other notable church buildings constructed by Justinian were: the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, and the Church of Saint Vitale and the Church of Saint Apollinare in Ravenna. His building programs also left the empire in financial ruin.

	IV.	Legal achievements.
		Justinian sought to reform the administrative and judicial systems of the empire. He tried to end the sale of offices, inequities in taxation, and abuses by landowners. His greatest achievement was the Corpus of Civil Law, which included the Code of Justinian (529). He commissioned legal experts to draw up this codification of Roman law that influenced all law in Western Civilization.

	V.	Church affairs.
		Justinian believed he was the ruler and protector of God's church. He opposed paganism, closing the Academy of Athens (529). He tried to eliminate Arianism by military campaigns against Arian kingdoms and by closing Arian churches. He sought better relations with Rome, giving the title "pope" exclusively to the bishop of Rome. He called the Second Council of Constantinople, the fifth ecumenical Council (553) to seek an interpretation of the Definition of Chalcedon that would be acceptable to Orthodox and Monophysite Christians. The West did not accept the Council for many years.  Monophysites in the East did not ever accept the Council. But Justinian established the custom in the East that it was the emperor who determined church affairs.

LECTURE 3.5:  THE CONTINUATION OF THE EMPIRE IN THE EAST

	I.	Following loss territory to Islamic expansion throughout the 7th century, the Byzantine Empire experienced a renewal in the 8th century and continued until the fall of Constantinople (1453).

	II.	The Iconoclastic Controversy.
	A.	The renewal of the Byzantine Empire was achieved by Emperor Leo III (717-740). Leo III used his military and administrative talents to rule the empire and church in the East in the spirit of Justinian. However, he is best remembered for his effort to purify the church by banning the veneration of religious pictures.
	B.	The use of religious pictures, called "icons," had been a long-standing practice in the East. By the third century, pictorial representations of individuals and events from the Bible were common. Much of this art was associated with cemeteries. The first widespread use of icons in worship was in the fifth century. These were primarily pictures of Jesus, but also of Mary and the saints. This practice was similar to the respect shown toward pictures of the emperor in the East: where the emperor could not be, his picture represented his presence, and was treated as the emperor himself. This was the attitude of many Christians toward religious pictures. Icons were venerated by means of kisses, incense and genuflexions. But prayer and worship was directed beyond the icon to the one it represented.
	C.	Emperor Leo III sought to eliminate icons for several reasons. First, he was acting in support of many Christians who already opposed icons. Second, he wanted to destroy the power of monks who derived income from manufacture and sale of icons. Third, he sought to make Christianity appealing to Manichaeans and Paulicians who despised material things. Fourth, he believed the success of Islam was due to their rejection of religious images, and that only Jews and Muslims obeyed the biblical commandment against the worship of images. Fifth, he was supported by Monophysites who argued that Jesus Christ has only a single divine nature and no picture can depict his reality. Leo III issued an edict declaring all icons to be idols and ordering their destruction (726). The term "iconoclast" means "image breaker." Many monks and common people resisted, but Leo III enforced the decree with his army. When patriarch Germanius appealed to the pope, he was deposed and persecution began (730). Under Pope Gregory III (731-741), two synods at Rome excommunicated all who opposed icons (731). Leo III responded by taking away all of Sicily and much of Italy from the pope's jurisdiction.
	D.	The strongest supporter of icons was John of Damascus (675-749). In his most famous work, The Fount of Wisdom, and in other treatises, he argued that an icon partakes of the nature of whomever it represents, so that devotion expressed to the icon passes to the one represented by it. The icon is not totally separated from the divine, but is a medium of access to God.
	E.	Emperor Constantine V (740-775) opposed icons, and called a synod at Constantinople that condemned icons (754). Under Emperor Leo IV (775-780), persecution ceased. After he died, Empress Irene restored the icons. Under Emperor Constantine VI (780-797), the Second Council of Nicaea (the seventh ecumenical council) approved the veneration of icons (787).
	F.	The controversy was renewed by Emperor Leo V the Armenian (813-820). He ordered the destruction of icons (814), deposed patriarch Nicephorus (815), and brought about the exile, imprisonment, or martyrdom of many.  This continued under Emperor Michael II (820-829) and Emperor Theophilus (829-842). It ceased when Empress Theodora restored the icons, appointed Methodius as patriarch, and began the annual "Feast of Orthodoxy" (843).
	G.	Icons have continued to be important in the the Greek Orthodox Church, where icons receive such acts of devotion as kissing or lighting candles, and are believed to provide direct access to the heavenly realities they represent. However, no three dimensional images or statues are allowed. In the Roman Catholic Church, religious art has included statues as well as pictures. Since the Council of Trent (1545-1563), the Roman Catholic Church has held that honor and reverence should be shown to images of Christ, Mary, and the saints. However, religious images of all kinds were opposed in the Protestant Reformation.

	III.	Throughout the ninth and tenth centuries, the Byzantine Empire remained secure in the East, but lost control of the West. In the ninth and tenth centuries, the Greek Orthodox Church worked to establish Christianity in Moravia, Bulgaria, and Russia. In the tenth and eleventh centuries, there was a revival in art, literature, and military power. In the late eleventh century, the Seljuk Turks conquered Asia Minor. Constantinople finally fell to the Muslims in the fifteenth century (1453).

	IV.	Relations between the Greek church in the East and the Latin church in the West deteriorated.  The church in the East saw the emperor as head of the church, and the five patriarchs of Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria as equal in authority. The church in the West saw the pope as head of the church. Other disagreements between the churches included: 1) Use of leavened bread for eucharist in the East, but unleavened bread in the West; 2) Christ was portrayed only as a man in art of the East, but also as a lamb in the art of the West; 3) Laymen could be ordained as bishops in the East, but only priests could be ordained as bishops in the West; 4) Priests could be married in the East, but had to remain celibate in the West; 5) Nuns could be widows in the East, but had to be virgins in the West; 6) Monks could not own slaves in the East, but could in the West; 7) Christians could not eat meat with blood in the East, but could in the West. The most serious difference was over wording of the Creed. In the East, the Creed says the Holy Spirit proceeds "from the Father." In the West, the Latin term filioque, meaning "and the Son," was added to the Creed so that it says the Holy Spirit proceeds "from the Father and the Son." In addition, differences in language, culture, and politics became insurmountable. The final break between the Greek Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church occurred in 1054.

LECTURE 3.6:  THE RESTORATION OF THE EMPIRE IN THE WEST

	I.	In the early 8th century, parts of Italy and Sicily were under Byzantine control. The emperor's representative was the exarch of Ravenna, who had authority over the duke of Rome and the pope. However, the popes increasingly opposed the emperor and patriarch in Constantinople, even when Rome was in danger of falling to the Lombards. They were forced to find protection for Rome from a power other than Constantinople. This protection was to be obtained through a military and political alliance with the kingdom of the Franks.
	II.	The Franks had been in Gaul since the early 5th century. Under their king Clovis they accepted Christianity, drove the Visigoths into Spain, subdued the Burgundians and firmly established their kingdom. The kings of the Merovingian dynasty began with Clovis.
	III.	By the 8th century, the real power in the Kingdom of the Franks was not the Merovingian king, but the “house mayor.” One important house mayor was Charles Martel who turned back the Islamic expansion at the Battle of Tours (732). Another house mayor was Pippin the Short, who planned to overthrow Childeric III, the Merovingian king, and take the title of king for himself.  To accomplish this, Pippin obtained the approval of the Frankish nobles and the sanction of the pope (751). When Aistulf, king of the Lombards, conquered Ravenna (751), and was threatening Rome (753), Pope Stephen II went to Pippin for help. In the church of Saint Denis near Paris, Pippin was crowned king of the Franks and given the title "Patrician of the Romans" (754).  Then, Pippin invaded Italy and forced the Lombards to give up recently acquired lands (754-756). Area that had belonged to the Byzantine Empire were given to the pope, forming the "Papal States" or "States of the Church." When Pippin died (768), his kingdom was divided between his sons Charles and Carloman. After Carloman died (771), the kingdom went to his son Charles, later known as Charles the Great or Charlemagne.

	IV.	Charlemagne (768-814).
	A.	Charlemagne carried out both military and missionary expansion. He defeated the Lombards (777), the Bavarians (787), the Visigoths (788), the Frisians (790), and the Saxons (804). In each of these regions, he required the people to accept Roman Catholic Christianity.
	B.	He was active in church administration. He called councils, enforced tithing by Christians, appointed bishops and increased the number of archbishops. He strengthened ties to Rome by recognizing the authority of the pope and by adopting Roman liturgy, law, and monastic rule.  He also established schools throughout his realm, creating an intellectual revival.
	C.	He took an active role in theological controversies. He opposed adoptionistic Christology that had arisen as an accommodation to Islam in Spain. In response to the Iconoclastic controversy of the East, he called a council at Frankfurt that declared pictures to be useful for instruction and decoration, but not objects of worship. He also supported the addition of the term filioque to the Creed, approved by a council at Aachen (809).
	D.	At Rome in Saint Peter's Church, Charlemagne was crowned as emperor by Pope Leo III on Christmas day (800). The people applauded the coronation as a restoration of the empire in the West.  It put Charlemagne in the line of emperors from Augustus Caesar, and due to the involvement of the pope, it gave a divine stamp of approval to the empire in the West.  In the West it was believed that God's consecration had been given to the emperor by the hands of a pope. Eventually even the Byzantine Emperor Leo V (813-820) recognized Charlemagne as emperor of the West.

	V.	Charlemagne's great power was due to his own abilities. After his death, the empire declined. Under Louis the Pious (814-840), the empire remained intact, although greatly weakened. After his death, the Treaty of Verdun (843) divided the empire between his sons Lothair, Louis, Pippin, and Charles the Bald. The empire suffered severe losses to the Normans, the Saracens, and the Magyars.  The empire continued, but there was no real power until the time of Otto I (936-973), who was crowned as emperor in Rome by Pope John XII (962).
LECTURE 3.7:  CHURCH AND STATE IN THE MIDDLE AGES

	I.	Preliminary Considerations.
		A.	For people of the Medieval Period there was no division between church and state.  Indeed, identification of the church with society is a feature that distinguishes Medieval Christianity from earlier and later periods. The church was the one universal institution, incorporating within it all individuals and institutions, including government. The church attempted to be the supreme state–the kingdom of God.
		B.	However, the church did not have within its power the means of coercion that would make its rule complete. Therefore, the church depended on secular rulers to enforce its policies. Once political forces arose other than the church to rule society, the church would become a voluntary religious association again. Until then, this universal society was ruled by the Christian emperor, by the pope, by both of them together, or by representatives from the church as a whole. Efforts to exercise authority resulted in centuries of conflict.

	II.	Decline of the Empire and Growth of the Papacy.
		A.	The alliance made by the papacy with the kingdom of the Franks, and the restoration of the empire in the West under Charlemagne freed the papacy from the empire in the East and provided a source of political stability in the West. However, after Charlemagne's death, there was a rapid decline of his empire.
			1.	Charlemagne’s empire was soon divided among his descendants. Under Louis the Pious (814-840), the empire remained intact, although greatly weakened. After his death, the Treaty of Verdun (843) divided the empire between his sons Lothair, Louis, Pippin, and Charles the Bald. They in turn divided their realms among their own sons.
			2.	The weakened empire suffered severe losses to the invading Vikings from Scandinavia, also known as Norsemen or Normans, during the 9th, 10th and 11th centuries.  
			3.	Attacks by Saracen Muslims and Hungarian Magyars brought additional devastation, especially in Italy and Germany in the 9th and 10th centuries.
			4.	As the empire diminished, a system of feudalism arose in which local nobles would grant land and a promise of protection in return for allegiance and military service. By the end of the 10th century, Europe consisted of a feudal system including hundreds of nobles and kings in a struggle for power. As the power of secular rulers declined, the power of the church, and of the papacy in particular, grew rapidly.
			5.	The empire continued, but it had no real power until the time of Otto I (936-973), who was crowned as emperor in Rome by Pope John XII (962).
		B.	The church became part of the feudal system as church officials took on civil functions, and as many bishops and abbots acted as feudal lords with serfs working great church holdings. More serious was control of the church by both secular rulers and archbishops. In the 9th century there was a movement to reduce the influence of the secular rulers and archbishops. Support for this movement was found in forged documents: "The Donation of Constantine" and "The Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals." These documents claimed that the Pope has supreme authority in both church and empire, that bishops may appeal directly to the Pope rather than accept judgments of secular rulers or archbishops, and that neither the Pope nor bishops were under secular control.
		C.	Throughout most of the 9th century, the Popes were the most powerful men in Italy. One of these, Pope Nicholas I (858-867), felt that the church is superior to all earthly powers and that the Pope is ruler of the whole church. He forced king Lothair II of Lorraine to take back a divorced wife and excommunicated archbishops who supported Lothair. The next pope, Hadrian II, also clashed with Lothair, placing a curse on him and his court. When Lothair and several members of his court died in an epidemic, the prestige of the pope was at its peak.

	III.	Decline of the Papacy and Renewal of the Empire.
		A.	As the empire continued to decline, and as anarchy increased, even the power of the papacy deteriorated. By the late 9th century, the papacy was controlled by anyone who controlled Rome, since the Pope was still chosen by the clergy and people of Rome. Popes were elected under pressure from nobles, kings and emperors. Pope John VII (870-882) spent his resources defending Rome and the surrounding area against invasions by Saracen Muslims. He was poisoned by his family and then killed by a servant who smashed his skull with a mallet. Pope Stephen VI presided over the "Cadaver Council" (897). At this council, the deceased Pope Formosius was taken from his tomb, exhibited on the streets of Rome, tried and found guilty of various crimes, then mutilated and thrown into the river.
		B.	In the 10th century, things grew worse.  Sergius III, Leo V and Christopher I all claimed to be pope at the same time. Sergius III (904-911) had his rivals killed and began fifty years in the history of the papacy called the "Pornocracy." During this period, the Popes were controlled by the Roman noble Theophylact, his wife Theodora, and his daughter Marozia. Marozia was married to Alberic of Spoleto, but she was also the lover of Pope Sergius III and bore him an illegitimate son. After her husband and Pope Sergius III died, Marozia married Guido of Tuscany. Tuscan soldiers captured the papal palace, imprisoned Pope John X (914-928) and smothered him with a pillow. Marozia appointed the next three popes: Leo VI (928-929); Stephen VII (930-931); and John XI (931-936), the illegitimate son born from her relationship with Sergius III. Eventually, Marozia was put in prison by Alberic, another of her sons. Alberic appointed his son, Octavian, a grandson of Marozia, to be Pope John XII (955-964).
		C.	As the papacy declined, there was a renewal of leadership in the Saxon dynasty of kings.
			1.	Henry I (919-936) united German tribes to repel the Danes, Slavs and Hungarians.
			2.	Otto I (936-973), son of Henry I, became king and extended his realm to include land of the Saxons, Slavs and Danes. In response to a request by Pope John XII, he invaded and liberated Italy. He was crowned emperor by Pope John XII in Rome (962). Otto I deposed Pope John XII and brought about the elections of Pope Leo VIII (963-965) and then Pope John XIII (965-972). Throughout his realm, Otto maintained the right of investiture: the right to invest bishops and abbots with symbols of their office, exercising control over the appointment of the higher clergy and filling these high offices with men faithful to him.  
			3.	Otto II (973-983), son of Otto I, continued the policies of his father.
			4.	Otto III (983-1002), son of Otto II, increased control over the papacy. He had his cousin Bruno elected Pope Gregory V (996-999) and his tutor Gerbert elected Pope Silvester II (999-1003).
			5.	Later, during the reign of Conrad II (1024-1039), the papacy was controlled once again by nobles of Tuscany, who on one occasion secured the election of a twelve-year old boy as Pope Benedict IX (1033-1048). The title "Roman Empire" came into use after Conrad II took over control of Burgundy (1034)
	IV.	Revival of the Papacy and the Investiture Controversy.
		A.	Corruption of the papacy, as well as widespread simony, nepotism and marriage among the clergy, led to a reform movement to purify the church and restore authority to the papacy. It was supported by Emperor Henry III (1039-1056), who appointed bishops of high character. When there were three rival Popes, he brought about the election of Clement II (1046-1047).  Later he brought about the elections of Pope Damasus II (1047) and Pope Leo IX (1049-1054).
		B.	At first, the reform movement was grateful to Emperor Henry III for rescuing the papacy. Yet, before long, advocates of reform sought to establish the independence of the church from all secular control. Pope Leo IX was committed to the task of reform. His most important act was to change the make-up of the college of cardinals, the Pope's immediate advisors. These had been the leading clergy from the vicinity of Rome. Leo filled these positions with reform minded men from all over Europe. Leo made journeys to Germany and France on behalf of reform, holding synods and enforcing his authority. It was during the papacy of Leo that communion was finally broken with the Greek Orthodox Church (1054).
		C.	The most intense struggle between the church and secular rulers was over "lay investiture." This was the practice where a secular ruler as a layman conferred the bishop's ring and staff which were the symbols of spiritual authority. In some cases a noble maintained the right to choose the clergy in the area he ruled. In other situations bishops or abbots were vassals of the king or emperor. Almost all secular administrative and secretarial duties were carried out by church officials since they were the educated class. Rulers felt that they had the right to appoint whom they wanted, but the church felt that it was wrong to accept appointments of clergy based on political reasons.
		D.	Pope Stephen IX (1057-1058) and Pope Nicholas II (1058-1061) pushed forward the process of reform. A Roman synod declared lay investiture forbidden (1059). This synod also adopted a new process for selection of Popes which has remained in effect until the present. Formerly, the Popes were selected by the clergy and people of Rome. According to the new regulations, the Pope was elected by the cardinals, who now consisted of men from all of Europe. The Pope could come from anywhere in the church and the election could take place elsewhere than Rome if necessary. Papal authority was advanced more by Pope Alexander II (1061-1073). However, the force behind the papacy throughout this era was Hildebrand, a leading cardinal since the papacy of Leo IX.
		E.	Hildebrand was elected as Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085). He believed that the Pope has divinely appointed authority which all must obey. He renewed decrees against simony, married clergy and lay investiture. He clashed with Emperor Henry IV, excommunicating five imperial counselors and threatening Henry himself (1075). Henry retaliated at a German council which declared Gregory deposed (January 24, 1076). Gregory then excommunicated Henry, deprived him of secular authority, and released his subjects from oaths of allegiance (February 22, 1076). Henry could not resist opponents who announced plans to chose a new emperor. He went to Italy and presented himself as a penitent before Gregory. Gregory then ended the excommunication (January 28, 1077). But after Henry regained power, he deposed Gregory and appointed Pope Clement III (1080-1100). Gregory died in exile.
		F.	Cardinals who had supported Gregory VII elected a series of Popes without imperial consent:  Victor III (1086-1087), Urban II (1088-1099), and Pascal II (1099-1118). After the death of Emperor Henry IV, Pope Pascal II met Emperor Henry V, and they agreed that the king would give up lay investiture if the bishops would give up secular lordships (1111). When the bishops refused, the Pope and his cardinals were imprisoned until they granted to Henry the right of investiture with ring and staff. This was followed by a synod at Vienne which excommunicated Henry and once again prohibited lay investiture (1112).
		G.	A compromise was achieved at the Concordat of Worms (1122). In Germany, the selection of bishops and abbots was to be free, but the emperor was to be present at their selection.  The emperor also gave up investiture with ring and staff, the symbols of spiritual authority, but he retained investiture by the touch of the scepter, the symbol of his secular authority and the conferring of temporal possessions. 

	V.	Climax of Papal Power in the Medieval Period.
		A.	The papacy reached the peak of its power under Pope Innocent III (1198-1216). The son of a noble family, he studied at Paris and Bologna and served as cardinal. As Pope, he worked to establish independence from, and control of, all secular authority. He began by reorganizing the administration of Rome, removing foreign influences from Italy and Sicily. He eventually claimed the right to determine the selection of, and perform the appointment of, the emperor. He forced King Alfonso IX of Leon to give up a wife to whom he was wrongfully married. He forced King Philip II of France to take back a wife he had divorced. He compelled King Peter of Aragon and King John of England to acknowledge their kingdoms as fiefs. He gained temporary possession of the Byzantine Empire when the Fourth Crusade captured Constantinople. He attacked heretics in southern France and gave approval to mendicant monastic orders. He summoned the Fourth Lateran Council (1215). Some of its decrees included: the doctrine of transubstantiation concerning the Eucharist; confession of sins by all Christians at least once each year; mandatory payment of tithes; and a greater role of the church in secular justice. Innocent III was also the first Pope to call himself "Vicar of Christ."
		B.	The Popes who followed Innocent III continued his policies, but not with the same success.  Pope Gregory IX (1227-1241) organized the inquisition. Pope Innocent IV (1243-1254) tried to excommunicate Emperor Frederick II (1212-1250) who ruled all of Germany, as well as northern and southern Italy and Sicily. Pope Urban IV (1261-1264) was a Frenchman who appointed French cardinals. Pope Boniface VIII (1294-1303) sought world rulership more than any Pope before him. However, conflict with King Philip IV of France (1285-1314) resulted in the imprisonment and death of the Pope.

	VI.	The designation "Holy Empire" was begun by Emperor Frederick I to counter claims of superiority by the church (1157).  The full title "Holy Roman Empire" was first used only after the empire had begun to lose ground to the papacy (1254).  Eventually this empire was ruled by the Hapsburg dynasty (1440), and continued to exist in Austria and Germany until it was finally abolished by Napoleon I (1806).

LECTURE 3.8:  MONASTICISM IN THE LATE MIDDLE AGES

	I.	Developments in Monasticism in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries.
		A.	The history of monasticism was marked by cycles of decline and renewal, or corruption and reform. Devotion to monastic ideals would bring fame and wealth to monasteries, resulting in an increase in worldliness. Individuals devoted to the original goals of the monastic life would withdraw and start over again, or attempt renewal within a monastic movement.
		B.	William of Aquitaine founded a Benedictine monastery at Cluny (910). This monastery was independent of local church authorities and secular rulers, and was under protection of the pope in Rome. For the next two hundred years, the monastery at Cluny was directed by a series of six abbots.  The main occupation of the monks was the Divine Office: observance of the hours of prayer and Scripture reading that had been set forth by Benedict of Nursia.  They advocated strict observance of the Benedictine Rule, cultivation of spiritual life, greater attention to worship, reduction of manual labor and election of abbots by monks. These ideas spread rapidly and were adopted by monks and nuns throughout Europe in the tenth and eleventh centuries. Monasteries both new and old adopted the Clunaic reforms, and by the twelfth century, over 1,000 Clunaic monasteries existed in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and England. The monasteries were under the rule of the abbot at Cluny who appointed the prior of each community. The Clunaic movement influenced the church as a whole. It promoted a monastic lifestyle by the secular clergy (priests living in the world and having charge of parishes), as well as by the regular clergy (priests bound by monastic vows and living under a monastic rule). It also opposed the widespread practice of simony.

	II.	Developments in Monasticism in the Twelfth Century.
		A.	As the Clunaic movement accumulated wealth and declined in vigor, new movements arose.  Robert of Molesme founded a Benedictine monastery at Cîteaux (1098). It advocated a more primitive form of monasticism, stressing poverty, simplicity and solitude. The monks at Cîteaux (in Latin, Cistercium), called Cistercians, stressed the need for separation from the world. The Cistercian monasteries were located in remote locations with plain churches.  Stricter diet, increased manual labor and periods of silence were enforced. The Cistercian monks were also called White Monks, since they wore white or gray habits of undyed wool. This set them apart from other monks who wore black habits and were called Black Monks.
		B.	The Cistercian reform movement spread rapidly due to Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153). When he was twenty-three years old, he and some of his friends joined the monastery at Cîteaux (1112). When the number of monks at Cîteaux grew too large, Bernard established a new monastery at Clairvaux (1115). He became famous for his mysticism, piety, love for God, writing of hymns and support of the crusades.
		C.	By the end of the twelfth century there were more than 600 Cistercian monasteries across western Europe. As the movement spread, daughter houses were subject to the oversight of the abbots of the mother houses from which they had begun. Authority was not completely situated in one place as in the Clunaic system. They were united by a common "charter" and by annual General Chapters in which all the Cistercian abbots met at Cîteaux. The movement was a federation of autonomous monasteries under abbots of equal authority. 

	III.	Mendicant Monastic Orders of the Thirteenth Century.
		A.	In the 13th century several new monastic orders arose. These are called mendicant orders.  The term "mendicant" means "begging," and these orders were originally committed to a renunciation of both common and personal property. The members of these orders often are called "friars," a term meaning "brothers."
		B.	The Franciscan Order, also referred to as the Order of Friars Minor, was started in 1209 by Francis of Assisi (1181-1226). The distinguishing mark of this order was the insistence on complete poverty for the whole order as well as for the individual friars. They were to live by the work of their own hands or by begging, but could not accept money. As the order grew, problems arose, and its rule was revised in 1221 and 1223 to allow for some possessions. Franciscans promoted preaching and missions.
		C.	The Dominican Order, also called the Order of Preachers or the Friars Preachers, was begun in 1216 by Dominic of Castille (1170-1221). This order followed very strict discipline based on the monastic Rule of Augustine. It practiced individual and corporate poverty, with the exception that the order was allowed to own houses, buildings and churches. Manual labor was abandoned and intellectual endeavors were given priority. Dominicans were devoted to study, preaching, teaching, and often worked closely in the service of the pope.
		D.	The Carmelite Order was founded on Mount Carmel in Palestine in 1154.  In 1209, Albert of Vercelli, the patriarch of Jerusalem, drew up a monastic rule for the order that demanded absolute poverty, vegetarianism, and solitude. In 1245, the Carmelites were given given the status of friars by Pope Innocent IV. Carmelites emphasized prayer, contemplation, missions and devotion to Mary.
		E.	The Augustinian Order, also called Augustinian Canons, Black Canons, or Regular Canons, had their origins in northern Italy and southern France in the 11th century among people trying to follow the Rule of Augustine. In the 12th century, independent Augustinian houses or congregations were established. In 1456, Pope Alexander IV granted them the status of mendicant friars. Augustinians were noted for scholarship and commitment to hospitals.
		F.	The Order of the Servites, or the Order of the Servants of the Blessed Virgin Mary, was established in 1240 in Florence by seven men left the world to devote themselves to Mary. They followed a modified form of the Rule of Augustine, and directed their ministry to the world. Servites emphasized care for the sick, relief for the poor and education for children.

LECTURE 3.9:  THE CRUSADES

	I.	Background to the Crusades.
		A.	General situation.
			1.	A split occurred between the Roman Catholic Church in the West and the Greek Orthodox Church in the East when representatives of Pope Leo IX laid an excommunication against Patriarch Michael Cerularius in the Church of Holy Wisdom in Constantinople (1054). The patriarch responded by issuing an excommunication against the Pope. An important factor in the Crusades was the desire to restore unity to Christianity.
			2.	The revival of the church and empire in the late 11th century, including reform efforts, contributed to a spirit of renewed vigor in Western Europe. This was a period characterized by deepened religious feeling, increased asceticism, and a strong sense of "other-worldliness" in desire for the blessedness of heaven. Areas where religious zeal was the strongest were the primary recruiting grounds for the Crusades.
			3.	The piety of the age placed great value on relics and pilgrimages. It had been common since the 4th century for Christians to travel to the land of Christ's life, death, and resurrection. There developed a practice of venerating relics and places associated with Christ and other Biblical figures. Although Jerusalem and the  "Holy Land" had been controlled by Muslims since the seventh century, Christian pilgrimages had been allowed to continue. This became more difficult when the Seljuk Turks took control of Asia Minor and Palestine (1070-1071). These Seljuk Turks accepted Islam, opposed Christian pilgrimages and desecrated places considered holy by Christians. This forced Christians to carry arms for self-defense and to consider taking the offensive against the Muslims.
4.	The idea of attacking Muslims in the "Holy Land" was encouraged by success in the West. The Normans drove out the Muslims from Sicily and southern Italy (1060-1090), and King Ferdinand I of Castille (1028-1065) recovered most of Spain.
		B.	Immediate causes.
			1.	From the time of the Emperor Constantine, all of the functions of the state were believed to be in the sphere of Christianity. War was justified as a struggle against evil. Participation in "just war" might involve sin for which a Christian must do penance, but it was acceptable.  Eventually, regular Christian participation in warfare led to its justification. Charlemagne and his successors claimed that the right of such warfare belonged to the emperor alone. However, the rise of feudalism placed the responsibility of warfare on kings, nobles and knights. The Christian knight possessed a "blessed sword" to use according to a code of chivalry: he must give his life for his lord, his country, and his church; he must not fight for personal gain or to save his own life; he must defend widows, orphans, and the poor; and he must destroy heretics and pagans. Under Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085), it was claimed that the church decides what is a "just war." Finally, under Pope Urban II (1088-1099), the Crusade was declared not only a "just war," but a "holy war" against the unbelievers to reclaim the "Holy Land" for Christians.
			2.	The factors leading up to the Crusades reached a climax when the eastern Emperor Alexis I (1081-1118) appealed to Pope Urban II (1088-1099) for assistance in the struggle against the Muslims. At a synod in Clermont in eastern France, Pope Urban called for the First Crusade (1095). This was not simply to aid the Byzantine Emperor. It was a "holy war" for God against the unbelievers to reclaim the "Holy Land" for Christians. The Pope called on all to take part, and promised plenary indulgence to all who "took up the cross" as Crusaders. 
II.	The Major Crusades.
		A.	The First Crusade.
			Pope Urban’s call for a crusade found enthusiastic response. Thousands of volunteers, especially peasants, set forth across France (1096). They destroyed villages and massacred Jews on the way. Most of these wandering peasants were destroyed by Muslims when they reached Asia Minor.  The major work of the First Crusade was accomplished by armies from the feudal nobility of France and Italy. These armies gathered at Constantinople where they spent the winter and spring before crossing into Asia Minor (1097). A combined force of 5000 men captured Antioch (1098), Jerusalem (1099), and gained possession of the "Holy Land." The Crusaders divided the conquered territory into feudal kingdoms. The Roman Catholic Church was established there with patriarchs at Antioch and Jerusalem. Protection for these Latin states was provided by military orders of knights who lived under monastic vows. Two of the largest orders were: the Poor Knights of Christ and the Temple of Solomon, also known as the Templars, founded near the site of the temple in Jerusalem; and the Knights of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem, also known as the Hospitallers, founded near a hospital in connection with the Church of John the Baptist in Jerusalem. There was an increase in the exchange of both goods and ideas between East and West. However, the Greek Orthodox Church and the Byzantine Empire were only more estranged by the actions of the Crusaders.

		B.	The Second Crusade.
			The Muslims soon began to recapture what they had lost by taking Edessa (1144). Bernard of Clairvaux proclaimed the Second Crusade (1146). Led by King Louis VII of France (1137-1180) and Emperor Conrad III of Germany (1138-1152), the Second Crusade set forth with hopes of restoring and strengthening the Latin states in the East (1147). However, most of its forces perished in Asia Minor, and those who reached Palestine were defeated at Damascus. The Crusade was a disastrous failure and it left a bitter feeling among many in the West.

		C.	The Third Crusade.
			The earlier successes of the Crusaders disappeared in the late 12th century. Saladin, a Kurdish Muslim, united the Muslim forces from Egypt to Asia Minor and overran almost all of the Latin states including Jerusalem (1187). In response, the Third Crusade (1189) was led by the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of Germany (1152-1190), King Philip Augustus II of France (1179-1223), and King Richard I "the Lion-Hearted" of England (1189-1199). Frederick was drowned in Asia Minor, Philip returned early to France, and Richard was able to take back only limited area around Acre. Like the other Crusades, this one was marked by the cruelty of Christians.

		D.	The Fourth Crusade.
			Forces from France who went on the Fourth Crusade determined to conquer Egypt first (1202). They bargained with the city of Venice to provide transportation to Egypt. The Venetians agreed, on condition that the Crusaders stop on the way and capture the Hungarian city of Zara. Once the Crusaders captured Zara, the Venetians convinced the Crusaders to stop at Constantinople to depose an usurper who had taken control of the Byzantine Empire. What resulted was capture of Constantinople and plundering of its treasures (1204). Baldwin of Flanders, a French noble, was named emperor in Constantinople, and much of the Byzantine Empire was divided into a feudal system among French knights. A Roman Catholic was appointed patriarch in Constantinople, and much of the Greek Orthodox Church was temporarily subjected to Rome. The Venetians established a monopoly over trade to the East. Throughout the period of this Latin Kingdom in the East, the true Byzantine Empire survived in exile. Although greatly weakened, the Byzantine Empire eventually regained Constantinople (1261), but relations with the West grew ever worse.

		E.	Other Crusades.
			Crusades continued throughout the thirteenth century. The "Children's Crusade" consisted of thousands of children from France and Germany who marched to Italy, only to be sold into slavery in Egypt (1212). The Fifth Crusade was a military expedition against Egypt that had some initial success but ended in failure (1218-1221). The Sixth Crusade was led by Emperor Frederick II of Germany (1212-1250), who vowed to go at one time (1215), made an effort to set forth much later (1227), was excommunicated by the Pope for his delay (1228), and finally advanced with his forces only to secure possession of Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Nazareth through a treaty with the Sultan of Egypt (1229). There were other minor Crusades, but all were total failures.

LECTURE 3.10:  NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS

	I.	Radical Religious Leaders.

		A.	Peter of Bruys was a priest in a village of the French Alps. After being expelled from his parish, he traveled around preaching that all individuals are responsible for their own salvation; that there is no need of clergy, infant baptism, the Mass, prayers for the dead, or church buildings; and that the cross should be hated rather than venerated. He was killed by a mob in about 1139.  The followers of Peter were called Petrobrusians.
		B.	Henry of Lausanne, also known as Henry the Monk, was a Benedictine monk who wandered around preaching in southern France. He primarily opposed the worldliness of the clergy. His preaching was condemned at the Council of Pisa (1135). Henry eventually adopted ideas from Peter of Bruys, such as rejection of infant baptism and prayers for the dead. Henry also taught that individuals are responsible for their own salvation, and that there is no need of clergy. He disappeared about 1154. His followers were called Henricians.
		C.	Arnold of Brescia was from northern Italy. After studying in France, he returned to Brescia and became the abbot of group of monks. He taught that clergy should follow the example of Christ and the original disciples by giving away worldly possessions and living on the contributions of others. He organized the people of Brescia in a movement against their bishop. However, Arnold was condemned at the Second Lateran Council in Rome (1139). He moved to France and began teaching, but was condemned again at the Council of Sens (1141). After visits to Switzerland and Bohemia, Arnold was ordered to Rome where he could be kept under close watch. He continued his radical activities even in Rome with the support of some people, until Pope Hadrian IV (1154-1159) had him executed, his body burned, and his ashes scattered on the Tiber River in 1155.

II.	New Movements of the Twelfth Century.

		A.	The Albigensians.
			1.	The Cathari were part of a movement that had its origins with the Bogomiles in Armenia and Bulgaria. By the middle of the 12th century these Cathari, meaning " Pure Ones," were at Albi in southern France, and twere called Albigenses or Albigensians. They were also in northern Italy and northern Spain. By the late 12th century they made up a considerable minority in southern France. In addition, a majority of the people in the region were willing to tolerate the Albigensians and admired their dedication and devotion. Still, the doctrinal views of the Albigensians marked them as heretics and made them suffer persecution. The Albigensians were condemned by the Catholic Church at the Council of Lombers (1165), the Council of Verona (1184), and the Fourth Lateran Council (1215).
			2.	The Albigensians became extreme dualists. They believed God had two sons: Satanel who was evil, and Christ who was good; and that there are two eternal powers: one good, one evil. They believed the material world is evil, and the original sin is sexual intercourse and reproduction which brings about existence in the material world. They taught that salvation is by repentance, asceticism, and consolation. Consolation came through laying on of hands by someone who had already received consolation. A person who received consolation became one of the "perfect," and was required to abstain from possession of property; from killing; from oaths; from marriage; and from eating meat, milk and eggs. Followers who had not received consolation and become "perfect" were considered "believers," and were allowed to live like other Christians, but were expected to receive consolation before death in order to be saved. The Albigensians emphasized the Scriptures, although rejecting much of the Old Testament. They also believed that Christ did not have a material body or die a real death, and that there is no hell or resurrection from the dead. Their worship involved Scripture reading, preaching, the Lord's Prayer, and a blessing of the "believers" by the "perfect."

		B.	The Waldensians.
			1.	Peter Waldo, also known by the name Valdez, was a wealthy merchant from Lyons who determined to follow all of the teachings of Christ (1176). He gave away his possessions in response to the text: "If you would be perfect, go, sell what you possess and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven" (Matt 19:21). He attracted a group of followers who called themselves the "Poor in Spirit" or the "Poor Men of Lyons" (1177). They did not oppose the Catholic Church and had no desire to be separate from it. With all respect, they appealed to the Third Lateran Council for permission to preach (1179).  However, Pope Alexander III refused to grant them permission.  They were excommunicated by Pope Lucius III at the Council of Verona (1184).
			2.	The most characteristic principle of the Waldensians was their conviction that the Bible, and especially the New Testament, was the only guide for all Christian belief and practice. It was learned by heart and followed to the letter. The Waldensians stressed preaching, fasting and poverty; recited the Lord's Prayer; took the Lord's Supper together; abstained from oaths and killing; rejected private confession, purgatory, prayers for the dead, and veneration of saints and relics; and anticipated the Millenium. Eventually they came to oppose the papacy and the necessity of ordained, established clergy. The Waldensians soon spread from Italy into France, Spain, and Germany.

	III.	The Catholic Response to New Religious Movements.
		A.	The Catholic Church usually was able to silence new religious movements without persecution. Often, respected preachers such as Bernard of Clairvaux regained the loyalty of the people to the Catholic faith. When excommunication and missionary effort was unsuccessful, sharper means were used. After a papal legate was killed by supporters of the Albigensians, Pope Innocent III declared a crusade against all heretics of southern France and those who supported them (1209-1229). During this period, the Fourth Lateran Council was held in Rome (1215). This council decreed that convicted heretics were to be handed over to secular rulers for punishment. 
		B.	A synod was held at Toulouse to deal with the heretics (1229). Laymen in that region were forbidden to possess the Scriptures except for Psalms and collections of approved quotations. This synod established the Inquisition to deal with heretics through trials, confiscation of property, imprisonment and death. The Albigensians were eliminated within a century.  The Waldensians barely survived, and continued to exist in northern Italy and Switzerland. 

CHAPTER 3.11:  MEDIEVAL SCHOLASTICISM

	I.	Introduction.
		A.	The term "scholasticism" refers to the educational system of the medieval schools from the 11th to the 14th century. The Latin word scholasticus was used for a teacher in a cathedral or monastic school. This education concentrated on the seven "liberal arts" which included: the trivium of grammar, rhetoric, and logic; and the quadrivium  of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. Advanced studies included theology, canon law and medicine.
		B.	For several centuries, particularly in theology, study had simply repeated the teachings of previous authors. In the 11th century, a development in intellectual activity resulted from using logic in order to understand doctrine by analogy, definition and systemization. This involved the use of Aristotelian categories to reconcile reason with Christian faith.
		C.	The development of scholasticism was accompanied by discussion of the nature of, and the relationship between, "universals" and "particulars." A "universal" is a genus, a general category, or a class concept such as "humanity." A "particular" is a species, a specific class of individuals designated by a common name and having common attributes, or some specific individual such as a "human being." Three basic positions were taken during concerning universals and particulars. Extreme Realism, following Platonic philosophy, taught that universals have a real existence apart from and prior to particulars. Moderate Realism, under the influence of Aristotelian philosophy, taught that universals have real existence, but only in connection with particulars. Nominalism taught that universals have no real existence, but are simply names or abstract concepts for the resemblances among particulars. Extreme Realism, which was dominant in the beginning of scholasticism, eventually gave way to Nominalism by the end of the Medieval Period.

	II.	Early Scholasticism.
		A.	The Eucharistic Controversy.
			1.	In the 9th century, there was a controversy over the nature of Christ's presence in the Lord's Supper. Radbertus argued that the bread and wine are transformed by miracle into the real body and blood of Christ, and that eating this gives immortality to Christians. Ratramnus rejected this change in the elements of the Lord's Supper, and argued that the body and blood of Christ were only spiritually present and received through faith.
			2.	In the 11th century, the controversy was renewed. Berenger used logical arguments to oppose the prevailing view that the bread and wine of the Eucharist were the real body and blood of Christ. He argued that the bread and wine are not really changed themselves, but rather, they are dynamic symbols in which Christ becomes invisibly present following consecration. Lanfranc responded to this  by using Aristotelian logic.  He argued that the substance (the underlying property or essential nature) of the bread and wine is transformed into the body and blood of Christ, but the accidents (external properties or nonessential qualities, characteristics, appearances, and circumstances) of the bread and wine are unchanged.
			3.	The doctrine of transubstantiation became official Catholic teaching at the Fourth Lateran Council (1215).

		B.	Anselm (1033-1109).
			A native of northern Italy, he moved to France and joined a monastery at Bec in Normandy where he studied with Lanfranc (1059). He became prior of the school (1063), and abbot of the monastery (1078). He was appointed archbishop of Canterbury (1093). His philosophical perspective was Extreme Realism, and he incorporated it into his theology. Although he made extensive use of philosophy, he believed that faith was a necessary foundation for all philosophical speculation. His search for understanding was an act of faith. He wrote: "I do not seek to understand that I may believe, but I believe that I may understand:  for this I also believe, that unless I believe I will not understand." In his works, the Monologion  and the Proslogion, Anselm presents a doctrine of God. In the Monologion  he argued for God's existence from consideration of goodness and perfection. In the Proslogion  he uses what is called an ontological argument, claiming God is "that than which nothing greater can be conceived." In his Why Did God Become Man? Anselm discusses the atonement. Rejecting the theory that Christ's death was a ransom paid to the devil, Anselm argues that it was to make satisfaction for the dishonor done to God by sin. According to Anselm, as one who is divine Christ offered a sacrifice of infinite value; and as one who is human Christ offered the perfect obedience required of humanity.
		C.	Abelard (1079-1142).
			He was from Brittany in northern France. After studying under the Nominalist Roscellinus and then the Extreme Realist William of Champeaux, Abelard adopted moderate realism or conceptualism. He was a brilliant lecturer and debater, and while still a student himself he was able to attract large numbers of students. He lectured at the cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. However, arrogance and a love affair with a young woman named Heloise caused problems. When this love affair produced an illegitimate son, Abelard married Heloise, but her uncle had Abelard castrated (1118). Abelard became a monk in a monastery, and sent Heloise to live as a nun in a convent. He was considered a heretic by some, but a genius by others; and he was pursued from place to place by both enemies and followers. He used reason in a free and critical way to test the traditions of the church. In his work Yes and No, he arranged statements from the Scriptures and the church fathers on opposite sides of questions to force students to make sense out of them. Abelard disagreed with Anselm's satisfaction theory of the atonement and taught a moral influence theory: the death of Christ is the greatest expression of God's love and it should awaken love in human beings. He also held controversial views about the Trinity. Bernard of Clairvaux secured his condemnation at the Council of Sens (1140). Abelard was later reconciled to Bernard and spent the rest of his life at Cluny. His story is told in his autobiography, History of Calamities.
		D.	Peter Lombard (1100-1160).
			He was born in Lombardy in northern Italy, and studied at Bologna and Paris before becoming a teacher at Notre Dame in Paris (1134). He also became bishop of Paris (1159). He is called the "Master of Sentences" and is most famous for his Four Books of Sentences, the standard Medieval textbook for theology. It was a compilation of citations from creeds and the church fathers with explanations and references to opinions of contemporaries. This work summarized Christian doctrine in four categories: (1) God, (2) Created Beings, (3) Salvation, (4) Sacraments and Future Life. He was one of the first theologians to argue that a sacrament is a cause of grace, and to set number of sacraments at seven: (1) baptism, (2) confirmation, (3) eucharist, (4) penance, (5) ordination, (6) marriage, (7) last anointing.

		E.	Universities.
			The number of students at cathedral and monastic schools increased in the 12th century. Paris and Oxford were famous for theology, Bologna for church law and civil law, and Salerno for medicine. Organizations of students and teachers were formed, after the pattern of guilds, for protection, good order and admission into the teaching profession. Associations of students and teachers in a "university of scholars," began at the end of the 12th century. At Paris the single university had been formed by a union of the cathedral school and private schools of the city. It included four faculties of arts, theology, canon law, and medicine; and it consisted of separate "nations" or "colleges." This became the pattern for most of Europe. Teaching was by lecture and debate. Degrees included:  the bachelor's degree, similar to an apprenticeship in a guild; the master's degree, similar to the rank of a master workman in a guild, and carrying authority to teach; and the doctor's degree, the highest level of education.  Universities were founded all over Europe and soon became an important force alongside the church and the empire.

	III.	High Scholasticism.
		A.	New Philosophical Influences.
			The key factor in the development of Scholasticism was recovery of the works of Aristotle. His main treatises were translated into Latin from Greek and Arabic in the 12th century. Many scholars wanted to accept only what agreed with Augustine and Neo-Platonic philosophy. Others accepted all Aristotelian philosophy. A third group, consisting mostly of Dominicans, harmonized Aristotelianism with Neo-Platonism.
		B.	Albertus Magnus (1193-1280).
			He was a native of Germany, but studied in Italy where he joined the Dominicans (1223). He taught at several places in Germany (1228-1245), at Paris (1245-1248), and at Cologne (1248-1255). He was also active in church government and the leadership of the Dominican order in Germany. As the most learned man of his time, he was the first Christian scholar to master Aristotle. He wrote twenty-one massive volumes of commentaries and treatises on Aristotle. His main interest was harmonizing Aristotelian philosophy with Christian faith. He taught that revelation was superior to reason, but that reason should be used in order to better understand the mysteries of revelation.
		C.	John Bonaventure (1217-1274).
			He was born in Italy, studied at Paris, and became a Franciscan (1243). He taught at Paris (1248) where he received the doctorate in theology (1253). He was involved in leadership of the Franciscans and in various church offices. He was influenced by the Neo-Platonism of Augustine and Pseudo-Dionysius. He was a mystic who believed that by meditation and prayer a Christian is able to achieve a union with God which brings knowledge of truth.
		D.	Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274).
			His parents sent him to study at the Benedictine monastery of Monte Cassino. He went to Naples for more study (1240) and joined the Dominicans (1244). He studied with Albertus Magnus at Paris (1245-1248) and Cologne (1248-1252). He returned to Paris (1252) where he earned a master of theology (1256) and taught most of his life. His chief accomplishment was using the rediscovered philosophy of Aristotle for Christian theology. He advocated Moderate Realism, believing universals have real existence only in particulars. His main works are the Summa contra Gentiles, a manual of instructions for missionaries; and the Summa Theologica, a systematic presentation of Christian doctrine along Aristotelian lines, but with much of the Neo-Platonism of Augustine and Pseudo-Dionysius. Thomas said there is a natural theology discoverable by human reason, but that attainments of reason alone are inadequate. Rather, revelation is the source of truth that cannot be learned by reason alone.  For example, he argued that God's existence can be established by reason, but that God can be known only by revelation. He also emphasized the Sacraments.

	IV.	Later Scholasticism.
		A.	John Duns Scotus (1265-1308).
			He was from Scotland. At fifteen he joined the Franciscans. He studied at Cambridge, Oxford, and Paris, and lectured at Cambridge, Oxford, Paris, and Cologne. He wrote commentaries on the Scriptures, on Aristotle, and on the Sentences of Peter Lombard. For him, theology may not agree with philosophy, but it must be accepted on the authority of the church. In his view, the essential nature of God is arbitrary will, rather than being. He was the first theologian to argue for the Immaculate Conception. His ideas are so intricate and obscure, that he is known as an example of subtlety. Protestant Reformers used the term "duns" or "dunce" for anyone whose ideas were obscure or subtle.  
		B.	William of Ockham (1285-1349).
			Born in England, he joined the Franciscans (1310), and studied and taught at Oxford (1318-1324). He was summoned to Avignon to answer charges of heresy (1324). He sided with the Spiritual Franciscans who defended the total poverty of Christ and the apostles. Being excommunicated he fled to the court of Emperor Louis of Bavaria (1328). He defended the authority of the state against the church. He was a Nominalist, claiming universals have no real existence, but are only abstract concepts for relationships perceived by the human mind. He also taught that doctrines cannot be proven with certainty by philosophy.

LECTURE 3.12:  THE RENAISSANCE AND THE END OF THE MIDDLE AGES

	I.	Introduction.
		A.	The term "renaissance" means "rebirth."  In the history of Europe it refers to the rebirth of secular civilization following the Middle Ages. It was the inspired by the civilizations of ancient Greece and Rome. Although secular interests had never completely died out during the Medieval Period, there was intense development of secular spirit during the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries.  The word secular denotes that which pertains to this world in contrast to an emphasis on what is heavenly or spiritual. The Renaissance involved a new outlook on the world, in which emphasis was placed on this world's present life, beauty, and enjoyment, rather than on a future heaven and hell.
		B.	A new intellectual movement of the Renaissance was humanism. This was a focus on human beings rather than on God, with the arts, the sciences, and all other forms of intellectual and practical activity concerned with the nature and condition of man. Humanism extolled not only humanity in general, but individual human beings, resulting in individualism and high regard for versatility in all aspects of human life.
		C.	The Renaissance flourished first of all in Italy in the 14th and 15th centuries, then in Germany, France, England and Spain in the 15th and 16th centuries. Throughout this entire period there was great economic, political and social change. It was an age of great accomplishments in painting, sculpture, and architecture by such individuals as Leonardo de Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael. In literature, famous authors included Cervantes and Shakespeare. Important discoveries in science, inventions in technology and explorations of the world were made by such people as Copernicus, Kepler, Galileio, Gutenberg, Columbus, and Magellan. However, at the same time as these secular advances, there were significant developments in Christianity.

	II.	The Search for Objective Evidence of God in Religion: Sacramentalism.
		A.	This period witnessed an increased interest in the sacraments developed in the Middle Ages. The sacraments were believed to be outward visible signs of inner invisible realities of the Christian faith. The officially recognized seven sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church were seen as the only sure means of grace for Christians. This grace was bestowed through actions which were performed and words which were spoken, and it did not depend on the faith of the minister or the recipient. The sacraments were seen as objective evidence of God’s grace.
		B.	The most important sacrament of all was the Eucharist or Mass. The Eucharist, referred to as Mass, was enhanced by acceptance of the doctrine of Transubstantiation. By repeating Jesus' words of institution at the Last Supper ("this is my body ... this is my blood") a priest was believed to transform the bread and wine into the real body and blood of Jesus. Each Mass was a new sacrifice of the body and blood of Christ, bringing about additional grace from God.
		C.	The second most important sacrament was Penance. It had four parts: contrition for sins; confession to a priest; absolution from the priest; and satisfaction through good works. Punishment in purgatory after death was believed to make compensation for sins for which satisfaction was not made in this life. However, Christ and the saints earned an unlimited treasury of merit which could be dispensed by the Pope to cancel the penalties due for sin.  This practice came to be known as known as granting an indulgence, and was represented by a slip of paper that was bought and sold. An indulgence officially applied only to penalties imposed by the church as satisfaction for sins; but the common people often misunderstood an indulgence as granting actual forgiveness of sins. This misunderstanding was in fact promoted by church officials who sold indulgences in order to raise money.

	III.	The Search for Subjective Experience of God in Religion: Mysticism.
		A.	In response to the trend toward belief an abstract God of absolute will in Scholasticism, and the trend toward a predictable God of externally objective religion in Sacramentalism, some people began to search for a more personal relationship with God, even union with God.
		B.	An early leader in this movement was Meister Eckhart (1260-1327). He was a German who joined the Dominicans, studied in Paris, lived in Strassburg and taught in Cologne. He taught that the human soul is the spark of God; that humans should lay aside individuality and seek to enter into union with the indwelling God; that Jesus is the perfect example of one in whom God dwelt; that the result of union with God is love and righteousness; and that good works are the result of a soul made righteous by union with God.
		C.	Another leader was John Tauler (1300-1361). He was a Dominican from Germany who studied with Meister Eckhart and taught in Cologne and Basel. He condemned dependence on external ceremonies and good works. He also stressed the need for union with God, and for God to be born within each Christian.
		D.	One group of mystics in Germany and Switzerland in the fourteenth century called themselves the "Friends of God." They believed the essence of the Christian life was union of the soul with God. In the Netherlands, Gerhard Groote began a movement of mystics who called themselves "Brothers of the Common Life" and "Sisters of the Common Life." They lived in communities without monastic vows; shared their possessions; joined in common worship; confessed their sins to each other; devoted themselves to charity; operated schools; and produced devotional literature. An example of their piety is the Imitation of Christ by Thomas à Kempis (1380-1471).

	IV.	The Search for Representative Government in the Church: Conciliarism.
		A.	At the beginning of the 14th century, the papacy came under the control of King Philip IV of France. The papacy moved Avignon in southern France where it remained for almost seventy years. This is called the "Babylonian Captivity of the Church" (1309-1377). Every Pope during this period was French, and it seemed the papacy was a French institution. Pope Gregory XI (1370-1378) moved the papacy back to Rome in 1377, but died the next year. The cardinals were forced to select Pope Urban VI (1378-1389) who tried to keep the papacy in Rome. Four months later the cardinals claimed their first choice had been the result of intimidation, and selected Pope Clement VII (1378-1394) at Avignon. Both claimed to have supreme authority, demanded allegiance from Christians, and excommunicated their enemies. When both Popes died conflict continued. It is known as the "Great Schism" (1378-1417). This situation brought about a new movement to reform the church through representative councils.
		B.	The idea of reforming the church as well as ruling all of society by representative councils had been advocated by Marsilius of Padua (1275-1342). In his work Defender of the Peace,  Marsilius had argued that the unifying power in society is the state and not the church; that primary function of a secular ruler is to maintain peace; that the basis of secular power is the body of citizens who should create the laws, provide for the common welfare, and choose their rulers; that the government of the church should be the same as that of the ideal state, with Christians freely choosing their own spiritual leaders; that the final authority in the church is the New Testament, and the clergy can only teach men to obey it; that no bishop, not even the Pope, has any authority over other bishops; that the hierarchy of the church was not of divine origin, but was a human institution; and that decision making for the church as a whole can be done only by all Christians through general councils. Marsilius himself was excommunicated and died in exile, but some of his ideas were adopted by men who sought to end the papal schism.
		C.	Councils were held at Pisa (1409), Constance (1414-1418) and Basel (1431-1439). The Council of Pisa was unsuccessful, since it only resulted in a third rival Pope. The Council of Constance was able to end the schism and restore a single papacy, which for a time was a constitutional monarchy regulated by a legislative body representing all interests in the church. However, the councils were unable to institute meaningful reforms or to deal with political controversy.  While the Council of Basel was meeting, the supporters of the Pope Eugene IV (1431-1447) withdrew and met in a rival Council at Ferrara and at Florence (1437-1439).
		D.	The councils failed in their program to reform the church. Papal power reached unprecedented heights in the Renaissance Popes from Pope Nicholas V (1447-1455) to Pope Leo X (1513-1521). The most notorious were: Innocent VIII (1484-1492), who sold church offices and wasted church funds; Alexander VI (1492-1503), who became pope through bribery and had several illegitimate children; and Julius II (1503-1513), who led military campaigns to gain more power.

	V.	The Search for Intellectual Freedom and Human Dignity:  Humanism.
		A.	The most characteristic feature of the Renaissance itself, and the aspect which had the most direct influence on the development of Christianity, was humanism. Humanism emphasized individual human beings and human achievements such as art, literature, science, and music.  This was in contrast to a Medieval emphasis on the divine, the spiritual and the heavenly. The Renaissance humanists had confidence in human nature; belief in the power of learning and reason; and skepticism toward all that seemed irrational or contrary to human dignity.
		B.	The attitude of the humanists was manifest in their appreciation of the classical works of antiquity. This resulted in an effort to discover and study Greek and Latin literary works. Two early scholars who promoted such study in Italy were Petrarch (1304-1374) and Boccacio (1313-1375). Historical criticism was developed by Lorenzo Valla (1406-1457), who proved the spuriousness of many documents; undertook critical comparison of the Vulgate with Greek manuscripts; and opposed irrational doctrines of Medieval Scholasticism.
		C.	The Renaissance was advanced significantly by the invention of the movable type printing by Johannes Gutenberg (1400-1468). The Gutenberg Bible, printed about 1456, is the earliest book printed by the new process. By the end of the 15th century, over 25,000 publications, including nearly 10 million books, had been printed by new presses throughout Europe.
		D.	In Germany, Johann Reuchlin (1455-1522) promoted study of Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. In France, Jacques LeFèvre (1455-1536) interpreted the Bible by a grammatical-historical method and published French translations of the New Testament and Psalms. In England, John Colet (1466-1519) introduced educational reforms; lectured on Paul's epistles; encouraged a return to the discipline of the early church; criticized shortcomings in the Catholic Church; and urged study of the Greek New Testament.
		E.	The most famous scholar of the Renaissance, known as the "Prince of the Humanists," was Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536). Erasmus was an illegitimate son of a Dutch priest. He was educated at a private school run by the Brothers of the Common Life in Deventer (1475-1484).  He joined an Augustinian monastery at Steyn (1486); was ordained a priest (1492); studied at Paris (1495-1498) and Oxford (1499); and devoted himself to the study of Greek (1500). Due to the encouragement of John Colet, Erasmus applied his knowledge to study of the Bible. After journeys to England, Italy and the Netherlands, Erasmus settled in Basel. There he produced the first printed edition of the Greek New Testament (1516), which he revised several times; critical editions of the Greek and Latin church fathers; and many other literary works. He was convinced that the Catholic Church was filled with superstition, corruption, and error, but he had no desire to break away, for he felt division was even worse. He believed that education, an exposure of ignorance and immorality, and a return to the Scriptures would restore purity to the church.  For him, Christianity was a universal, ethical religion that was embodied in the life and teaching of Jesus Christ and had its fullest expression in the Sermon on the Mount.